Colourism In The 21st Century Cultural Studies Essay

Colourism In The 21st Century Cultural Studies Essay Even though the term colourism, otherwise known as shadeism, has gained popularity in recent years, the concept is deeply rooted in the colonial days of slavery. Defined as a form of  prejudice or  discrimination  in which persons are treated differently based on the social meanings attached to skin color, this light skin versus dark skin issue has had a damaging effect on the psyche of young black Jamaicans today. However, according to Cedric Herring colourism operates in two different ways: interracially and intraracially. Interracial colourism occurs when members of one racial group make distinctions based upon skin color between members of another racial group. Intraracial colourism occurs when members of a racial group make distinctions based upon skin color between members of their own race (3). While I will be analysing both forms of colourism, the focus of this thesis will be on intraracial colourism, specifically within the Jamaican community. After the abolition of slavery in Jamaica, the immersion of a middle and lower class was integrated into the hierarchical structure of Jamaica that previously only claimed whites as the elite. As a result, due to the preferential treatment that was awarded to mulattoes-a treatment that allowed them to have an education-, they became the ruling middle class with the then former black slaves turned peasants as the lower class. To make matters worse, the historical and stereotypical depiction of Africans as ugly, stupid and uncivilized and Europeans as pretty, intelligent and superior only served to brainwash black Jamaicans into thinking that they are the inferior race. Thus, the tendency to perceive or behave toward members of a racial category based on the lightness or darkness of their skin tone has resulted in, not only the segregation of a people within a specific ethnic group, but it has also created, amongst the African Diaspora of Jamaica, extreme methods through which the they will do anything to attain as many refined European attributes as possible. According to William Lynchs letter The Making of a Slave, his secret to controlling slaves is by pitting them against each other, by exploiting differences such as age and skin color that would, after some time, sow dissension amongst them, one that would last for many years to come. While there has been extensive research and academia founded on the topic of racism within the West Indian context during the colonial period, only a few have examined intraracial skin color hierarchies amongst the black race and even less amongst the African Diaspora of Jamaica in the 21st century. It is therefore, the purpose of this study to show how stereotypes and perceptions about light and dark skin signify an inheritance of similar attitudes documented in earlier generations of black Jamaicans, which in turn, sheds light on the ever-present discrimination that continues takes place on a day to day basis in their lives. It is my hope that this study will address the following: Demonstrate the link of Jamaicas colonial past to colourism today Show the medias role toward preference and how it has affected black Jamaicans Explain the extreme measures taken in order to be brown Many historians (Henriques 1953; Norris 1962) have acknowledged the fact that slavery has had adverse psychological effects on Africans (Danieli 394), especially those of a darker complexion. As such, the preferential treatment that was awarded to mulatto slaves (James and Harris 234) has been able to transcend years of black empowerment movements in such a way that it is clearly evident in Jamaicas society today through colourism (Herring 3). According to Carolyn Cooper, the remnants of Jamaicas colonial past are ever present in the social interactions of its people today, no matter the context. Her argument is further supported by Deborah Gabriel (28) who has studied race relations among Jamaicans and attests to the fact that colour prejudice is visible in the societys socio-economic environment. Moreover, Antonio Gramscis cultural hegemony theory, which is explored in the works of Boggs (39), Gail Dines and Jean M. Humez (62), adds another dimension to the analysis of colourism by stating that the superimposition of one culture over another negatively affects their already established social structure. It is common knowledge therefore that the white ideal- through which all analyses of colourism is based- expresses the view that blacks are the inferior race and whites, the superior (Kardiner et. al 315). Even Fanons psychoanalytical theory of racism and the dehumanization of African slaves in the colonial epoch support the idea that white supremacy has led black people to develop an inferiority complex. Yet, despite the call for black unity among the African race advocated by numerous social and political groups such as the Pan-African movements and Rastafarianism (Caravantes 2003), there are still messages being transmitted that stipulate that light skin people are better t han their darker counterparts. Carl Boggs lends aid to this belief through his analysis in the role of mainstream media. His study shows how the elite in society have been able to perpetuate the ideology that whites are the superior race (39). On the other hand, however, Margaret Andersen and Howard Taylor examine the way in which light skin black people are depicted as elite in their own right when compared to their darker counterparts (53). Consequently, the association between white people and light skin people as more intelligent, more beautiful and more civilized can be found numerous media outlets in Jamaica. To add to that theory is the analysis of Buju Bantons song Love me browning by Patricia Mohammed who stated that his song has reinforced and reflected the idea that men value the colour of light skin in women in Jamaica (35). This preference has led to the exacerbation of black womens self-esteem who now take it upon themselves to bleach their skin in an attempt to seem more desirable. According to Natasha Barnes, not only is skin colour used as a handicap to gain social access, it is also seen as a form of economic mobility and stability among the light skin people of Jamaica (*). Therefore, it isnt necessary that black people work as hard as they do to move up the socio-economic ladder because decent job qualifications are not more valuable than the colour of ones skin (Miller, ). However, after having researched the subject for this thesis project, I found that there was an abundance of information based on African American experiences along with the numerous studies which have proven that people with darker skin are subjugated to more prejudice than their lighter skinned counterparts. In fact, very little of the information found related to the theme of colourism as a system of language, internal scripts and external practices that govern the everyday interactions and experiences of young black men and women as it relates to skin tone  [1]  in the contemporary society of Jamaica. While I do agree with many historian sociologists, such as Fernando Henriques and Katrin Norris, who have highlighted the topic of skin politics in Jamaica, I intend to go further by examining the phenomenon of colourism as it relates to present day interactions and experiences. By examining the historical and contemporary significance of skin color, it will be proven that discrimination based on skin color is a present reality that will assume increasing significance in the future as current understandings of race and racial classifications disintegrate.   Furthermore, for the purpose of this thesis I have taken the liberty of looking at numerous primary and secondary sources, such as those written by Marcus Garvey, Dr. Eric Williams, Francis O.C, Anthony Richmond, and David Lowenthal. They have all have given me great insight into historical context of race relations during the colonial period and how black people reacted to this unjust treatment through the various black power movements, especially those executed by Rastafarians. On the other hand, however, due to the fact that this thesis is based on race relations within a specific social group in contemporary Jamaica, many of the research executed had to be done via questionnaires and face to face group discussions with Jamaican men and women. As a result, their responses have allowed me to fill in the information that was lacking in the secondary sources. Through the use of questionnaires, I was able to target audience of ten people in an efficient amount of time. Nevertheless, as with all data collection, some of opinions expressed warranted a deeper analysis of the subject at hand. Consequently, I resorted to focus groups of r people and individual interviews so that greater insight would be given as to why people had certain opinions; to know how they thought or felt about this topic, as it is a term that is rarely used in public spheres, and even less so in private ones. To conclude, this research speaks to the gaps in empirical research and theoretical conceptualizations of colourism by providing an in-depth exploration of skin tone bias and discrimination among African Jamaicans. Additionally, it seeks to develop a foundation for a theoretical framework that captures the key features of colourism in the 21st century. As such, an examination of race relations will show whether or not there is a preference for lighter skin in Jamaica, and if so the extent to which one would go to achieve features that approximate a Caucasian appearance. The origins of colourism The whites claim superiority, as is done all over the world, and, unlike other parts, the coloured, who ancestrally are the illegitimate off-springs of black and white, claim a positive superiority over the blacks. They train themselves to believe that in the slightest shade the coloured man is above the black man and so it runs right up to whiteà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ -Marcus Garvey () Colourism exists everywhere in the African Diaspora where slavery or colonization brought with it the imposition of western ideology and white supremacy, (Gabriel, 25). Approximately six hundred thousand Africans came to Jamaica from the Bight of Biafra, the Gold Coast, West Central Africa and the Bight of Benin between 1533 and 1807 (http://www.nlj.gov.jm/NLJ/files/u1/slave_trade_bibliography.pdf, 15/03/2013) to work as slaves on the sugar cane plantation. Upon their arrival, European plantation owners established themselves as superior based on a paradigm through which Africans were biologically and legally inferior because of their skin colour and as such they were forced to endure hard labour. This racist social system, known as white supremacy, resulted in Negro subordination through white domination. However, with the start of miscegenation between white slave owners and African slaves- through rape- a new racial group was created which in turn created a new paradigm. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦it was widely held that slaves of colour should not be employed in field labour and that they should be given preference in the training of tradesman, the flower of the slave population.' (Higman, 189). Mulatto children, although most of them were not freed, they were considered better than the black population because of their close proximity to the whites. As a result, they were offered an education, an opportunity through which they held an even greater advantage over the African slaves. Thus, when the sugar plantations experienced a decline in revenue and plantation owners were sinking into debt, some of them left Jamaica, retuning to live in England off the money they had earned through the hard labor of the Africans. This movement off the island by the whites left a void in the social hierarchy, which mulattos came to fill (Gabriel, 27). Consequently, gradations in skin colour through social stratification allowed these mulatto men and women to assume a higher status, socially and economically, according to the lightness of their skin tone. This hierarchical structure persisted even after the complete emancipation of slavery in 1838 with the introduction of freed slaves as lower class, mulattoes as middle class and whites as the elite. Yet, even after more than 200 hundred years of freedom, the idea that a persons destiny is predetermined by their skin tone proves that this historical continuum still exists. Colourism is so deeply embedded in the structure and organization of Caribbean societies that people identify themselves and form relationships according to the standards implemented by the white British (Flynn, 2011). While the 21st century has seen many changes with regards to race discrimination, interpersonal and intrapersonal colourism continues its reigns in Jamaican society. This is ever present in the social interactions among young adults and children who experience discrimination because they are too dark or preference because they are light skin. A standard that is further highlighted by a 22 year old male interviewee who recounted a particular situation in high school where a girl told him outright that she would not date him because he was too dark. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦because internalized racism is so firmly entrenched in the consciousness of black people, they are often unaware that they have a colour complex (Gabriel, 22). Browning, which replaces terms like mulatto, terceroon, quadroon, mustee, musteefino used in the colonial period is a fabled ideal of female beauty and male power in Jamaica society: the just right mix of white and black (http://jamaica-gleaner.com/gleaner/20120122/focus/focus5.html, 12/03/2013). However, this term browning also reduces the person being referred to as a mere object, a trophy, a prized possession; they are only seen for the colour of their skin and the socio-economic status attached to their nearness to European characteristics and distance from the African (Henriques, *). As a result, many men and women in Jamaica today are obsessed with trying to attain this ideal because they see it as a sign of upward mobility from their destitute stations. Therefore, while it is totally understandable that e ach person is entitled to their preference, the fact remains that this preference is based on a premise which reinforces the idea that black is undesirable and light skin is ideal. This train of thought is in keeping with the social stratification theory that has been interwoven in the socio-historical tapestry of Jamaica. For a mother to insist that her daughter, black or coloured, gone to buckra [master] house, gone live so that she gone lift de colour was seen as a sign of pride during the days of slavery (Henriques,*). Even now, there are parents who prefer their sons and daughters marry white (Norris, *) because they see it as a chance for their children to move upward in a society that acknowledges and propels the worth of the white bias. Consequently, these children have grown up with the idea that a dark skin tone limits ones chances to a better life and a lighter complexion is the pathway to success. An ideology that is further cemented by the responses given to a survey conducted on this theme of colourism, more specifically preference for lighter skin in Jamaica, through which the majority of respondents despite age, social class and education believ e that if one is fairer in complexion, they are automatically offered more opportunities. Likewise is the case for young adults transitioning from school life to independent status by entering the workforce. I am not surprised that certain employers request light-skinned individuals for recruitmentà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Appearances do matter in recruitment, and generally speaking, Jamaicans are unable to see the beauty in a man or woman of African descent (http://jamaica-gleaner.com/gleaner/20110914/letters/letters1.html, 12/03/2013). Explicit discrimination in the hiring process of many firms is a cause for concern within the Jamaican job market. Historically, darker men and women were not allowed to work in banks, government offices or at the front desk of private businesses until the 1960s (Gabriel, 33). Yet, even though change has been fought for by many involved in the Pan-African and Rastafarian movement, the existence of companies that openly state that they want light skin applicants does nothing for the advancement of a country whose motto recites Out of many, One people . The Acquired Anti-Own Race Syndrome created by Clinton Hutton, a lecturer in political philosophy and culture at the University of the West Indies, Mona refers to the the philosophy and psychology of assumed European world cultural superiority expressed by African peoples in their relations with each other and in perceiving and operating in the world (Hutton, ). Consequently, this ideology expresses the views that both socially and economically, Jamaicans have used the predetermined white supremacy standards to interact with each other. With this in mind, it is no wonder why dark skin Jamaicans think it necessary to try to elevate themselves out of their situations. They are measured by unrealistic goals designed to keep them at the bottom of hierarchical structure and they will remain there if the damaged psyche of those who reinforce these ideals dont change. If not, black Jamaicans will never truly be able to gain access to decent jobs based on merit alone as light skin far outwei ghs education and training skills (Miller, 3164). *** Many sociologists have argued that the mass media promote narrow definitions of who people are and what they can be (Andersen and Taylor, 53). For centuries the media has influenced and propagated the ideal body image for men and women across the globe, which in turn affects their personality, how they interact with one another and their health (Lubkin, 197). Even long before the advent of technological advances the global population has been exposed to paintings of idyllic body images as can be seen in the works of Rubens, Renoir and Raphael who influenced cultural standards for the ultimate body type in their respective eras (Kirsh, 126). As such, one shouldnt be surprised by the outright and even subliminal messages (Jackson, 350) projected to the masses that stipulate what is beautiful and what is not. Televisions, magazines, music and more notably in contemporary societies, the internet, have transmitted these idealistic images that would later epitomize an era. Intrinsically, i t is these major multibillion-dollar media conglomerate companies that concentrate their control on what is assimilated on a day to day basis. Their promotion on what is culturally acceptable has had an explosive effect on the way people think about themselves and about others. According to Italian communist Antonio Gramscis theory on cultural hegemony- through which he broadens the materialist Marxist theory- the ruling class within a culturally diverse society superimposes its values, whether social, economical, political or religious, upon the lower classes, who in turn buy into the status quo operating against their established social structure (Dines and Humez, 62). This dominance of one class or group over another can be used to explain the way in which media is used as a tool by the elites to perpetuate their power, wealth and status [by popularizing] their own philosophy, culture and morality (Boggs, 39). As a result, through analysis of the history of all forms of media leading up to the 21st century, one can easily stipulate that European features and fair skin are more pervasive- no matter the race-, youth is more accepted and beauty is whatever and whomever can approximate to both these ideals. A correlation can then be made between media and th e black ugliness/white beauty binary of imperialism and slavery that has spawned a racialized beauty empire (Rodrà ­guez, Boatcă, Costa, 196). And it is this correlation that highlights the conditions under which black people must perform in order to be successful; the same correlation that stipulates black beauty in the 21st century is a paradox. Marcus Garvey advocated for Black Nationalism whereby he encouraged African people to be proud of their race and see the beauty in their own kind (Caravantes, 2003). This movement de-centered white beautys iconicity through anti colonialist aesthetics focused on natural hair and black self-love so as to redefine blackness through positive valuation (Rodrà ­guez, Boatcă, Costa, 198). In collaboration with Rastafarianism, these Pan-Africanism Movements promoted ideologies like black is beautiful and Im black and Im proud, however, when mainstream media daily bombards the population with images that say otherwise, what is this country Out of many, one people supposed to believe? The idea that political, social and economical institutions have bought into this perception of superiority/inferiority within the African race only serves to reinforce this long standing belief. Advertising agencies have projected this standard at all levels in the Jamaican society. According to Carolyn Cooper, colourism can be found even at tertiary level education. It is the faces of lighter skin males and female students that are used to advertise the institutions at an international level, whereas the darker students were found in the local yellow pages. She further explains another situation in which family oriented advertisements display images of a dark skin father and light skin mother with a dark skin son and light skin daughter. Social ads also show the same thing. They big-up all the light skin girls them. Yuh cant leave yuh house without seein them brownins on billboards, in the news, on party flyers, in magazines. They dominate the industry, says a 23 year old cocoa coloured female interviewee who resides in Trinidad pursuing her bachelors degree at the University of the West Indies. The idea that men are not as affected by skin colour, hair texture and facial f eatures as their female counterparts, demonstrates their social and economical mobility in a patriarchal society despite the colour of their skin. As a result, it is only the representations of dark-skinned African women as those who are not ideal that is subliminally and openly transmitted. Indubitably, when one references Jamaican media, its music is highly influential, beginning with the famous Bob Marley, who put Jamaica on the map musically, with songs that referenced peace and black unity. However, when Buju Banton came out with his song Love me browning in 1992, consisting of the following lyrics: Me love me car, me love me bike, me love me money and ting but most of all me love me browning, it caused an uproar within the Jamaican society who accused him of denigrating the image of black women by promoting a colonial mindset (Mohammad, 35). Yet, even though he sang Love Black woman within that same year as a response to all the negative comments he was receiving, it didnt hide the fact that he was expressing the views of many Jamaican men who had a penchant for lighter-skinned women. Likewise in contemporary Jamaica, with the popularity of skin bleaching in songs from Vybz Kartel, who has also bleached his skin colour because he wanted to show off his tattoos ()*, Jamaicans are bombarded with the views that having a lighter complexion is the way to go. Music videos use women that are fairer in complexion when the song is about love and for dancehall music the predominantly darker skinned women are used to gyrate. Objectified as a sexual creature a darker woman isnt seen as someone a man would want to build a life with because she is considered only within a sexual context. While there have been some transitions in music where dark skin women are used with terms of endearment, the majority of the popular music videos shown still illustrate the European influenced cookie cutter image of women to sell their songs. The media is all about selling goods and selling fantasies is one of their products. It presents men with the ideal woman and vice versa. As such, lighter complexioned men and women, as depicted in all forms of media, are seen as trophies. According to Natasha Barnes, skin colour still serves as a handicap in access to good service, securing decent jobs, housing and other social amenities (Barnes, 286). Thus, a higher complexioned woman is seen as the symbol of a mans success whereas the man is seen as a way out of poverty and an elevation of social status for women. As such, the following statement given by a 20 year old anonymous female in response to a question about social interactions in Jamaica and the perceptions men and women have of each other, will clearly provide insight into the minds of young African men and women of contemporary Jamaica: If you have a light skin man in Jamaica, especially if you come from inner city Jamaica, is like you have gold. Youre introduced to a new world, you meet new people, have more opportunities because his world is completely different to your own. You cant force anyone to think black is beautiful when the evidence around them testifies to the contrary.   And which of our leaders are going from a rich mahogany to a high yellow shade? The poor can only afford bleaching creams, but the  well-to-do have other means (http://jamaica-gleaner.com/gleaner/20120226/news/news4.html, 25/01/2013) With particular attention to the Jamaican government ministers and officials, one sees that darker hued representatives are a minority. While it is not the fault of these officials to possess the education necessary that would allow them the chance to enter into such high esteemed positions the questions remain: Were they offered more opportunities due to their skin complexion? With such a high percentage of those who were given questionnaires saying Yes (82%) a lighter skin hue does open more doors for you, doubt still lingers. However, when newspaper ads highlight the fact that there are still proprietors requesting that trainees be brown or light-skinned as a prerequisite for employment in their firms (http://jamaica-gleaner.com/gleaner/20110911/lead/lead1.html , 02/02/2013) it supports the idea that discrimination persists to this day. Certainly, the government has spoken out against any form of skin prejudice and promised to take action, even urging people to boycott businesses lacking black faces, but few express confidence that the culprits will ever be named, (http://www.ipsnews.net/2011/09/jamaica-wanted-light-skinned-only-please/, 02/02/2013). A Darker Shade of Pale Weighing about 8 pounds (3.6 kilograms) on average and covering some 22 square feet (2 square meters), the human skin is the largest organ of the body, composed of a complex system of cell layers, nerves and glands that not only protects them from but also connects them to the outside world. However, what makes an African persons skin colour different to that of a white person, is the amount of melanin produced in the epidermis. As such, darker-skinned people produce more numerous and deeper-colored melanin particles than their fairer-skinned counterparts, which in turn acts as a benefit since they dont need as much bone-strengthening vitamin D, produced through exposure to UV rays  (http://science.nationalgeographic.com/science/health-and-human-body/human-body/skin-article/, 09/03/2013). Skin bleaching, also known as skin lightening or skin whitening, on the other hand, refers to the practice of using chemical substances in an attempt to reduce the prominence of skin discolorations and even lighten skin tone by lessening the concentration of  melanin produced. This whitening process can help lighten a tan, fade scars, and alleviate dark patches on the skin through the use of topical skin lightening creams and lotions that often contain plant extracts that have bleaching effects on the skin or chemical agents such as hydroquinone, azelaic acid, and retinoic acid. While several chemicals have been shown to be effective in skin whitening, some have proved to be toxic or have questionable safety profiles. Their harmful effects add to the controversy surrounding their use and the impacts they have on certain ethnic groups who apply skin lighteners to their entire body so as to achieve a lighter complexion. But this can be very risky as the active ingredient in some blea ching creams contain steroids or mercury, a toxic agent that can lead to mercury poisoning causing serious psychiatric, neurological, and  kidney  problem (http://www.webmd.com/beauty/face/skin-lightening-products, 09/03/2013) With a history that can be dated as far back as the Elizabethan age of powder and paint (Williams, 1957), the elaborate white make-up of Japanese Geishas (http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2004/apr/04/japan.nicolemowbray, 08/03/2013) or even the deep rooted desire Indians to have pale skin because it will that is entwined with Indias complex social hierarchy or caste system (Gomes and Westerhof 2001), it is evident that skin bleaching has existed for thousands of years. Yet, despite the warnings given by health officials to educate the masses about the dangers of skin bleaching creams, there are millions of people worldwide who dont heed these messages, particularly Jamaicans, who in fact, have reached dangerous proportions, particularly in the countrys slums. For them, a lighter complexion is seen as a ticket to upward mobility: socially, professionally and economically. As a result, they paste their entire bodies with white cream, don a track suit and intermittently try to refrain fr om the suns darkening powers. The various homemade concoctions such as toothpaste, curry powder, milk powder, household bleach, aloe vera and cornmeal that are used as part of their skin-lightening routine, a routine that some people do up to three times a day, is a way for them to achieve their goal (http://jamaica-gleaner.com/gleaner/20091115/news/news3.html, 12/03/2013). Frantz Fanon (1952), the Martinique-born French psychiatrist, used psychoanalytical theory to explore the psyche of the Negro as shaped by the Eurocentric world in which he lives, especially in a colonial context vis-à  -vis skin colour. Although he does not actually reference skin bleaching, he does speak of the inferiority complex engendered in the mind of Black people, who try to adapt to and imitate the culture of the colonizer so as to attain some sort of identity, especially after having been forcibly removed from their own African roots.   With that in mind, the attempt to assign color privilege based upon proximity to whiteness by circumnavigating the parameters of the white/non-white binary racial hierarchy is the spectrum upon which Pigmentocracy, and therefore colourism, is based (Blay, 5). It is the unconscious and unnatural training of black people from a young age to associate blackness with wrongness that has given rise to this widespread global phenomenon of skin w hitening.   The idea that ones destiny is intertwined with the colour of ones skin is ludicrous to some, however, in the lives of these Jamaicans, it is as absolute as night and day. Synonymous with the practice of slaves in the past, men and women are currently trying to ameliorate their socio-economic standing by marrying into families of a higher breed, but the only way to even reach this gateway of social mobility, according to them, is to physically alter their looks as well. Popular Jamaican proverbs like anything too black nuh good, or when yuh black yuh affi stick back and if yuh brown come around reinforce the high degree of colour prejudice existing in contemporary Jamaica today. The White  ideal (Kardiner   Ovesey, 1962) which includes pale skin, long, straight hair, and aquiline features, assesses the enduring influences on societal assessments of human value. Skin bleaching then represents one attempt to approximate the White ideal and cons

Racial Stereotypes In Disney Movies

Racial Stereotypes In Disney Movies The objective of Disney films was to transport its viewers to a magical realm of enchantment and endless possibility. Disney offered a supposed alternate paradigm in which there was the promise of a Happily Ever After. It aimed at appealing to audiences young and old and hoped to find universal viewership. Walt Disney once stated that Of all of our inventions for mass communication, pictures still speak the most universally understood language. And although it did reach audiences far and wide, for a young Indian girl watching The 1937 Disney adaptation of Snow White and The Seven Dwarfs, it gave her very little to identify with or relate to. Snow White, the first on-screen Disney Princess was rendered With lips as red as rubies and skin as fair as snow. Blatantly epitomising Western ideas of femininity and beauty, films like Snow White alienated the Non-western viewer. They created a fantasy that was centred on fixed archetypes of beauty and desirability which catered to the white, western population and had no room for anybody else. Eventually, the industry was criticised for its focus on a singular ethos and restriction to the First World. Consequently, the last decade of the 20th century saw Walt Disney Pictures release films that were now aimed at broadening its cultural spectrum. Alladin, debuted as Disneys first attempt to explore a different cultural terrain. Released in 1992, it was later followed by other culture specific films like Mulan and Pocahontas which opened in cinemas in 1998 and 1995 respectively. These films signalled a distinct departure from films that were pivoted around Western protagonists and their lived experiences. Although this new brand of films hoped to establish a sense of cultural inclusivity by venturing beyond the Western World, what became clearly evident in the process was a heavy dependence on racial stereotypes and caricatured depictions of culture. Elena Di Giovanni, in her essay Disney Films: Reflections of the Other and the Self, states that Disneys selection of certain cultures which it chose to portray, was not a choice that was arbitrary and unplanned. According to Di Giovanni, the reasons for selecting these cultures can be ascribed to precise cultural and ideological strategies. The cultures depicted in these films are either conventionally considered to be somehow inferior if juxtaposed with modern Western Civilisations and to the narrating American culture in particular, as suggested by the Saudi Arabian-born scholar Ziauddin Sardar. Edward Said was one of the first scholars to examine the complex relationship between the Orient and the Occident, one that he found to be a relationship of power, of domination of varying degrees of a complex hegemony In his 1978 publication of Orientalism, Said One of the first scholars to give a sharp account of these biased cultural encounters was Edward Said in Orientalisrn(1978). Even though primarily concerned with tracing the history of the Orientalist attitude by the West in literature, Said does not fail to consider the importance of new technologies and the media in the proliferation of this unjust tradition: One aspect of the electronic, post-modern world is that there has been a reinforcement of the stereotypes by which the Orient is viewed. Television, films, and all the medias resources have forced information into more and more standardized moulds. More recently, Ziauddin Sardar has echoed similar ideas in his 1999 publication of Orientalism, a book he writes, as assort of tribute to Saids work, therefore titling it the same. The main interest of Sardars book, whose approach is even harsher than Saids, lies in his detailed reflections upon the new, modern ways by which the Orientalist attitude manifests itself and is still spreading nowadays. By way of introduction to his work, Sardar declares that even though the project of Orientalism has way passed its sell by date, it is colonizing new territories, such new territories being related to the new geographies which are shaped and controlled by contemporary means of mass cornmunication like the cinema. A whole chapter of Sardars work is devoted to Orientalism in films, where the author sets out to explore the treatment and manipulation of other cultures within the discourse of cinema, across different genres, including cartoons, and where he makes ample reference to the Americ an hegemonic control of the cinematic medium. Sardar states that otherness is generally treated as a pattern book from which strands can be taken to draw up cultural representations which serve the purpose of entertaining audiences while reinforcing, by contrast, the superiority of the narrating culture. Thus, the the commodification of culture takes place whereby visual and verbal elements belonging to a distant world are taken and made suitable for smooth reception within more powerful socio-cultural settings. Aladdin, which was based on the Arab folktale of Aladdin and the magic lamp from One Thousand and One Nights, became the most successful films of 1992, grossing over $502 million worldwide. However, almost instantly, it was met with criticism from the American-Arab Anti-Discrimination Committee. The movie quite literally translated into an Orientalist fantasy. With glaringly distorted depictions of Arab culture, and a few pointedly offensive remarks, the movie has gone down in history as one of Disneys most controversial films. The film, which is set in the fictitious kingdom of Agrabah, introduces an ensemble cast of characters: Aladdin, a young street urchin, Jasmine, a jaded princess, Jafar, an avaricious minister of Court and Genie, the ebullient prisoner of the lamp. Although the film seems to focus on the characters as individuals, it is difficult to dismiss the overall denouncement of Arab culture, as is evident in the treatment and presentation of Arab society in the film. The vilification of Arab men in the film can be observed quite clearly through their portrayal as thugs, sorcerers, pick-pockets or beggars. Their physical attributes also seem to echo the cultural bias, with their descriptions coloured by thick lips, missing teeth, heavy, menacing brows and hooked noses. However, what is interesting to observe, is the decidedly different treatment afforded to the central protagonists. Both the hero and heroine are presented as almost exact counterparts to the white, suburban youth of the west. Aladdin seems fairly content in disinheriting his Arabian heritage, as he is cleverly christened Al, and exhibits American mannerisms through his style of speaking in the film. In the same vein, the character of Jasmine is equally americanised. Jasmine, though sporting dark flowing hair and with darker skin than her counterpart princesses in earlier films, still retains blue eyes. Though Jasmine must reflect an Arabian image, the films producers seem to find i t necessary to leave at least a vestige of tangibility that Western audiences can relate to. What one is left to ponder is whether these characters would have appealed to western audiences, had they not been endowed with these traits? This example recalls Saids own observations on Orientalist attitudes. Bring in said here. And Elena di Giovanni A whole new world then move to another song that was in fact more noteworthy. Most noteworthy, however is the opening sequence of the film, which was later revised due to harsh criticism and protests. Aladdin opens with the expository song Arabian Nights which includes the lyrics PEDDLER: Oh I come from a land From a faraway place Where the caravan camels roam Where they cut off your ear If they dont like your face Its barbaric, but hey, its home The blatantly offensive final line had to be eliminated from the home video version of the film as a consequence of the numerous protests the Disney Company received after international release. However, all the other subtle and indirect hints at the American cultures position of supremacy over the narrated Other, which is deliberately kept ambiguous and undefined in historical-geographical terms, remain untouched, and continue to carefully shape the viewers perception. One of these subtle instances in the movie can be seen in the same opening sequence. The first words which are uttered by the peddler contain an unmistakable, conventional reference to the culture portrayed: PEDDLER: Ah, Salaam and good evening to you worthy friends. The worldwide-known Arabic greeting is, however, immediately followed by good evening, as if to compensate even for the faintest sense of estrangement the viewer might feel upon hearing salaam. Orientalist preconceptions find their way into the Disney adaptation of the Chinese legend of Hua Mulan. Walt Disney Pictures released Mulan in June, 1998 and it was the thirty sixth animated feature in the Walt Disney Animated Classics. Mulan, which was once again infused with orientalist imagining of culture, uses a host of long-established, worldwide-known stereotypes on the visual as well as verbal levels. As Elina Di Giovanni points out, cultural metonymies are very often related to specific domains such as food, which provides universally identifiable socio-cultural references and ensures easy, if strongly stereotyped identification of different nations and peoples. In the case of verbal stereotypes, references to other cultures clichà ©d words and expressions tend to draw from common categories such as greetings, exclamations and titles. Greetings and exclamations, though not necessarily connected to the stereotyping of cultures, can nonetheless be frequently used to support cultural representations as they ensure simple and immediate identification. In the opening sequence of Mulan, the 1998 film which portrays the Chinese culture at the time of the invasions by the Huns, the visual and verbal cultural stereotypes employed do not contain any derogatory reference, but they are equally highly conventional. An instance of this can be seen in the portrayal and dialogue of the emperor of China who, incidentally, is always shown with the image of a golden dragon at his back to address his army generals in a situation of emergency. He is shown to exhibit a typical trait which is often associated with the Chinese culture, using words of wisdom to describe the fate of his country: EMPEROR: single grain of rice can tip the scale Moreover, one can note that the reference to the most popular element of the Chinese culinary tradition does not appear by coincidence in the emperors line. The shot which immediately follows features a large bowl of rice in the foreground with a pair of chopsticks lazily picking at the rice. This image is used in the film to introduce the protagonist herself, who will be very slowly revealed to the audience starting from her hand holding the chopsticks. But even more noteworthy, is that fact that the bowl of rice which alluded to in the beginning by the Emperor, and used in the introducing of the protagonist, Mulan is then later appropriated to serve American cultural interests by replacing the contents of the bowl(rice), with porridge and rashers of bacon and fried eggs, which make up Mulans breakfast. The bowl which contained rice in the opening scene has been deprived of its typical, if also highly conventional, Chinese content to be replaced by what looks more familiar to the American viewers, although totally remote from the eating habits of Chinese soldiers. Moving from visual to verbal examples, the use of language is an obvious vehicle for further consolidating the presence of American culture. It is worth pointing out that all the main characters in the films, although belonging to distant and exotic worlds, speak with perfect American accents. Moreover, they are very often characterized by the use of non-standard, colloquial or regional varieties of American English. This is the case of the dragon Mushu in Mulan, whose dialogue is generously punctuated with contemporary, informal American expressions. Similarly, in Aladdin, the most striking, informal and modem use of Ameriean English is to be found in the lines uttered by the genie of the lamp, appearing in different guises and often mimicking famous American personalities. His lines are filled with colloquial expressions as well as references to the contemporary American world. Pocahontas, which opened in cinemas in the year 1995, presented a thoroughly revised picture of a historical figure, appropriated suitably to appeal to western audiences. Modelled on the historical Native American figure ,Matoaka, who is more popularly known by the nickname Pocahontas, the film revamps and restructures the story of Pocahontas and showcases it as a tale where a culture under siege by British Colonialism, ends up being rescued by the White Messiah. The film clearly distorts historical facts and produces a tale that is made palatable to western audiences, with the White Settler rescuing the native tribe from a terrible fate, which, interestingly enough, would have been executed by his fellow men. The movie Pocahontas deviates from the true historical story in many ways. The most significant deviation is Pocahontas age and the nature of her relationship with John Smith. In the movie, Pocahontas is portrayed as a twenty year old woman who falls in love with John Smith, and he with her. From what we know of the historical record, she [Pocahontas] was a child when they met, probably between 12 and 14, and Smith was about 27, states Thomasina Jordan, the head of the Virginia Council on Indians, and herself a Wampanoag Native-American. However, it is not just her age that has been altered in the film version. Even her physical appearance is rendered far from factual. The on-screen Pocahontas is designed to be a tall, attractive figure, with dark, flowing hair and sharp features. This depiction in the film has been clearly designed to cater to the male fantasy of the young, exotic woman. Moulded from the Orientalist perspective, she is seen as the enigmatic princess, who captivates the young John Smith with her gentle spirit and exotic beauty. Moreover, the relationship between John Smith and Pocahontas, was that of a young girl and an older man. The relationship that the two share in the movie is entirely fictitious and completely inaccurate. Another deviation is John Smiths attitude towards the Native Americans. In the movie, Smith defends the Native-Americans, and dons the mantle of the White Messiah. Abandoning his fellow men, Smith advocates the legitimate right of the natives to possess their own land. He states that the British are the intruders and have no authority to colonise and usurp the land of the natives. This heroism, is however absent in factual accounts of the story. In reality, Smith believed that the English had a right to the land and he was not an advocate for the Native-Americans. Disney also distorts the facts about Governor James Ratcliffe. In the movie they portray him as a villainous character. At the end of the movie he tries to shoot Chief Powatan, but shoots John Smith instead. After he does this, his own men make him a prisoner and send him back to England. However, this is not confirmed in the historical account. Thus, it is evident, that even through Disneys attempt to create a more panoramic view of Society and the world, by retelling tales rooted in different socio-cultutal contexts, it is unable to rid itself of omniscient Western ideals which dictate the ways in which Non-western cultures are received. The non-western cultures can only be understood when either juxtaposed with western traditions or appropriated to appeal to a western audience. The appeal of a non-white prince must be countered with distinctly Americanised mannerisms. Tales from the East seem only to be tangible if they propagate long standing stereotypes and reinforce Orientalist preconceptions. While Disney paints portraits of cultural landscapes and attempts to traverse into the world of The Other, the question remains as to whether it is possible for the West to tell tales of a Non-White civilisation, without all the trappings of stereotypes and exoticism. Can a Media Giant like Disney truly showcase different cultures, without insinuating Western Supremacy over them all? Can they truly paint with all the colours of The Wind?

The Standard.com Case Study :: GCSE Business Marketing Coursework

The Standard.com Case Study The Standard provides critical and timely information about the Internet economy and furthermore gives a sophisticated coverage of the people, the companies, and the business models shaping it. Their content comprises insightful news analysis, business model reviews, personality profiles, and industry metrics, which support are both a print magazine, The Industry Standard and the online publication TheStandard.com. The Standard is a business-to-business Web site designed for senior-level executives who wants to keep up with the e-business. However, The Standard does not look at products, it analyses the business models behind them, the people that create them and their chances to be successful in the electronic marketplace. The audience consists of Internet business strategists and last year they had 450,00 unique visitors a month. The Standard considers itself, and is considered, as the leading online magazine in the e-business field, hence they developed a targeted message: â€Å"TheStandard: Intelligence for the Internet Economy.† Their logo is very simple and also conveys the idea of effectiveness and professionalism because of its apparent simplicity. The Web site has three columns on a black background. The left one is a menu, which is red, matching the logo. This menu constitutes the â€Å"solid† part of the design, meaning it is always there as the user clicks on different sections or articles. The middle part is white with a blue border and constitutes the frame that changes, where articles and links appear. However, leaving TheStandard’s main frame is not â€Å"just a click away,† as most of their links stay within their site. The last column on the left is for advertisings, which change as you click on different sections. Nevertheless, most of them remain business oriented such as Office.com, Visa or Worldcom. In addition, the site has a

Equality: Equal Treatment or Equal Opportunity? :: essays research papers

Is it fair or just to create equality by allowing special rights or accommodations to certain groups or individuals? I think it is. The foundation for my position is simple: How can we have the same rights for everyone, when no one is the same? This past November, I watched a video in Social Studies class. The video was about equal rights, and focused on several situations where rules could be challenged, and how the people got their way. One example was about a man in a wheelchair who wanted to go watch a movie at a local movie theatre. However, when he went to choose a seat, he quickly realized that he had no choice about where he could view the film. He was stuck with watching from in front of the first row, which is usually not a preferred spot for watching a movie. This man took the theatre to court for not giving him equal opportunity to choose where to view the movie. The theatre lost the court battle, and from then on set a precedent for all movie theatres to reserve sections in their facilities for the disabled. There are now wheelchair-accessible views from the front, middle, and back of many theatres around the world. The underlined issue in the above case was not about being treated equally, but rather being given equal opportunity. No one was being treated more superior than another, no one was denied the opportunity to watch the movie, but when it came to choice of seating, there was an inequality. Now, thanks to this man, that’s all changed. The case was much the same in an example of two female high school students that wanted to go for a lead part in the school production, but couldn’t because all the lead parts were for males. The two girls were given the equal right to participate in the production, but they were not given an equal opportunity to the part that they wanted. As a result, the rules were changed. The school’s first play featured males in the lead parts, and the second featured females. We watched a third example, this time about a young, female hockey player, who, again, had to be given special rights to achieve equality. In this case, all youngsters were given the equal right to play ice hockey. Males played in a males league, females played in a females league. Equality: Equal Treatment or Equal Opportunity? :: essays research papers Is it fair or just to create equality by allowing special rights or accommodations to certain groups or individuals? I think it is. The foundation for my position is simple: How can we have the same rights for everyone, when no one is the same? This past November, I watched a video in Social Studies class. The video was about equal rights, and focused on several situations where rules could be challenged, and how the people got their way. One example was about a man in a wheelchair who wanted to go watch a movie at a local movie theatre. However, when he went to choose a seat, he quickly realized that he had no choice about where he could view the film. He was stuck with watching from in front of the first row, which is usually not a preferred spot for watching a movie. This man took the theatre to court for not giving him equal opportunity to choose where to view the movie. The theatre lost the court battle, and from then on set a precedent for all movie theatres to reserve sections in their facilities for the disabled. There are now wheelchair-accessible views from the front, middle, and back of many theatres around the world. The underlined issue in the above case was not about being treated equally, but rather being given equal opportunity. No one was being treated more superior than another, no one was denied the opportunity to watch the movie, but when it came to choice of seating, there was an inequality. Now, thanks to this man, that’s all changed. The case was much the same in an example of two female high school students that wanted to go for a lead part in the school production, but couldn’t because all the lead parts were for males. The two girls were given the equal right to participate in the production, but they were not given an equal opportunity to the part that they wanted. As a result, the rules were changed. The school’s first play featured males in the lead parts, and the second featured females. We watched a third example, this time about a young, female hockey player, who, again, had to be given special rights to achieve equality. In this case, all youngsters were given the equal right to play ice hockey. Males played in a males league, females played in a females league.

Integrated research Essay

Introduction A family comprises of mother, father, children, grandparents and others united together by blood or adoption. A family results from a marriage. Family structures are built through marriage and that is why it is said that proper marriages lead to proper families . The family functions that are outlined in marriage settings are almost similar and that the challenges that are experienced in the marriage are those challenges that will eventually impact negatively on the family. This research will outline various challenges that marriage as a practical identity possesses and their eventual implications in the family. Marriage Marriage can be defined as the interpersonal relationship between most commonly a man and woman who are united legally via social, religious are or governmental recognition. There are different types of marriages; †¢ Arranged marriages-this is where marriage partners are chosen by the society e. g. monarchies †¢ Boston marriage-marriage between two partners not necessarily for sex e. g. between two women. †¢ Common-law marriage- involves a class of interpersonal status where people united by a common believe on marriage law marry on that basis †¢ Digital marriage-a kind of marriage where two people with no connection in their ‘gaming’ lives come together within a virtual community and declare that they are married †¢ Covenant marriage- in this case two people come together as partners in union and make a long life commitment for the marriage. Divorce is made more difficult here. In some jurisdictions, the legal concept of marriage has been recently expanded to emerging social beliefs such as same sex marriages. Marriages are considered part and parcel human stage of life and most people believe that at one point in their lives they should get married. People marry for different reasons ranging from; to achieve social and economic stability, to have and nurture children, to form a family unit and finally to legitimize sexual relations. Marriage is considered the main factor and the pillar of a family. Better families result from better marriages as the people involved are given enough guidance to form the next generation of the family. The persons in the family learn good values and teachings from their parents hence this will ensure that any subsequent marriages are strong and stable. Contemporary critics also suggest that modern marriages have become extremely very disadvantageous for women. When it comes to economic or social considerations, women do not compare with women. Contrastingly, the continued bias towards women will mean that in the near future, mean will be on the other side of the fence-where women were in the last century. This is evident from the fact that modern policies and divorce laws have been specifically designed to protect women. However, with the emergence of same sex rights, the situation will be more complicated due to the legal prohibitions and social taboos that deny the practices full recognition. Loss Loss of one of the marriage partner leads to termination of the marriage . Loss may result form death, divorce or any other factor that will mean that one of them is left alone. This is usually disastrous for the family setting where one parent or spouse is left alone to meet all the family requirements, in a case where the children still young and need to be taken care in terms of education provision, health, love, shelter etc. Grief usually results from loss and it is very various legal systems and societal family arrangements offer different legal directions and guidance on handling properties (finances, assets etc. ) developed by the couple incase one dies or incase of a divorce. Some cultures believe that both the wife and the husband are entitled to equal property rights. Other societies also prohibit children especially the girls from inheriting the family’s assets including land. A widow may also lose family property if she decides to remarry. Partners in a marriage are jointly responsible and liable for the debts of the marriage practice and therefore if there is any misunderstanding on the responsibility of the same, then, it might be solved on an individual basis. The era of the myth ‘doctrine of necessities’ where the husband remains the sole provider for the family is gone. Today, all partners in the marriage share responsibilities equally depending on the income generation level of each.

Memoirs of a Geshia and Andrea Del Sarto Essay

The film allowance of Memoirs of a Geshia faithfully depict the mise en scene in which it was taken. Woman are portaryed hale feminists in todays society. Sayuris blue eyes symbolise the Japanese culture, as the subdivision of irrigate is a good deal associated with adoption and change, as it can be both a relaxing and a desructive force. Sayuris growth from a untried servant to one of the most seek after geshia in her district weewee is a good guard against fire. Sayuri is depicted as being a notable protective for the equally formidable ele manpowert of fire which can be associated with the well-favoured but highly dangerous Hutsumomo. both(prenominal) woman of fire and the girl of water illustrate the dominance and power of women in todays society. as both characters were associated with the element of earth, emphasising the power of women in todays society as they scram gained power oer time. On the separate hand, in Andrea del Sarto, Browning rejects the tendency rejects the tendancy of romantics to devise all their desires onto a feminine intention .His dramatic monolouge in the poem is a variation on the theme of men processing women as objects, You beatiful Lucrezia that are tap reveals the artists desire to tramp his male dominance over her female passivity. Browning showcases the role of women during the Victorian while and the time as men except refer to them as objects as they were barely desired by men for their spotless eyes perfect mouth over time women have become to a greater extent powerful as portrayed in Memoirs of a Geshia as the society has prize and potential of women.

Critical Views of Beowulf

Beowulf Critical views nonp areil of the oldest and most important remains of the Anglo-Saxon literary productions is the epic poem of Beowulf. Its age is unkn take merely it comes from somewhere between the 7th and the 10th centuries. It is standardised a piece of ancient armour rust-brown and battered, and yet strong. The style of the epic poem is a deal simple- perhaps one should say, austere. Beowulf is indeed the most made honest-to-god English poem because in it the elements, language, metre, theme, structure, are all most nearly in harmony.The antecedent seems mainly bent upon telling us how his Sea-Goth big money Grendel and the Fire-drake. The poem uncloudeds with an account of forefathers of Hrothgar the Scylding, king of Danes. He is the builder of Heorot, the hall where Beowulf contends with Grendel. The poem begins with the burial of Scyld, from whom the dynasty of Scyldings take its name. In ancient days, so ran the legend, scyld when he was child, was drifte d in an open boat to the shores of Danes.When coming thus out of the mysterious of the Sea the bark touched the land, the folk put the naked child lying asleep in the midst of arms and gems and golden treasure, took him up and hailed him king. As he came alone and mysteriously out of the sea, so he passes away alone and mysteriously into the sea, and the cornerstone of the poem describes his burial. With as many treasures he brought, with so many they send him away when he died. And as the poem begins with this burial, so it ends with the burial of Beowulf.His burial is zero mythic, nothing mystic surrounding it. Beowulf, dead later his fight with the dragon, and his gray hair lying nigh his hair, is borne to the top of the great cliff that overlooks the sea. The cliff has its own name, Whales Ness. The epic is divided into tether chief episodes. Yet these three episodes are substantially wrought and well diversified. They are not repetitions, precisely there is a change of wrestling with Grendel in the night at Heorot and the descent underwater to converge Grendels mother while the sentiment of the potassium hydrogen tartrate is different again.But the great beauty, the real value, of Beowulf is in its self-respect of style. The word Grendel, as Lawrence points out, can be associated with the Old English grund, i. e. ground, bottom, or watery depths that we find the lurking-place of Grendel and his mother. affinity WITH OTHER WORKS Frederick Panzer in 1910 published the results of a careful study of over 200 folk- storeys which make believe elements of resemblance to the Grendel story. These tales with all their variations of outline have plenty in common. One of these is the tale of The Bears Son.From the varying versions of The Bears Son, something like a central frame, or outline, can be reconstructed. An aged king builds a hall or house which is nightly haunted by a demon. The elder sons of the king are unable to sweep over the invader, bu t the youngest son, formerly held in little esteem, wrestles with the deuce and wounds him. The fight of the demon is marked by a trail of blood. An episode follows in which the hero fights in an underground lair of monsters often against a antheral and a female.His victory over them, sometimes by a use of a magic sword, frees unfree maidens who return to the upper world. But the hero is abandoned by faithless companions, and must without aid roam means of escape from the monsters home. The tale often ends with the punishment of the traitors, and the marriage of the hero with one of the rescued maidens. Similarities in this outline to the Grendel episodes of the Beowulf are, of course, general preferably than precise. But it seems clear that Panzer is correct in claiming that a relationship exists.